A Soldier's Life
by Jeff Nordin
Introduction and Bylaws
Interpretive
Clothing
Scottish Culture
History
Music and Dance
Military Life
Language
Bibliography, Sources
and Library Materials
Editor's Note, second edition: Because the Clann first began appearing at the Minnesota Renaissance Festival, it was useful to maintain the story of being in service with Stewart's Regiment during the Revolt of the Netherlands as well as what is now our primary focus of the 30 Years War. Thus this section reflects both of those histories.
This is not intended to be a comprehensive view of Scots mercenaries. It will look at only a 75-year span, providing information useful as a base of knowledge upon which a living history interpretation may be built. It is presented in a question and answer format to facilitate memorization and to encourage readers to ask their own questions and find their own answers.
Good Hunting,
Ted Campbell (Jeff Nordin)
January 25, 1989
(Updated 1992, Charles Knutson)
Questions:
1. What is a mercenary?
2. Why did countries use mercenaries?
3. What types of mercenaries existed?
4. How were soldiers recruited?
5. Were Scots mercenaries mostly Lowlanders or Highlanders?
6. What would a camp or garrison be like?
7. What did armies of the time eat?
8. How did troops supply themselves when food was scarce?
9. How were supplies transported?
10. Why was Stewart's Regiment in Holland?
11. How long was the regiment in Dutch service?
12. What was service like with the Dutch?
13. What was the Spanish enemy like?
14. What types of soldiers were in the Spanish army?
15. How was the Spanish infantry organized?
16. What was Stewart's strength at Danzig?
17. What is known of Stewart's Regiment traveling to Danzig?
18. What was service like in Danzig?
19. What was it like to serve in the Polish army?
20. Why did Scots fight for Gustavus Adolphus in the 30 Years War?
21. Were all of Sweden's soldiers mercenaries?
22. If conscription worked so well, why did Sweden use mercenaries?
23. How was Gustavus' army organized?
24. Did any Scots fight on the Catholic side of the 30 Year War?
25. How many Scots served with Gustavus and when?
26. What were soldiers paid by Gustavus?
27. What were Swedish tactics like?
28. What was the Imperial army like during the 30 Years War?
29. How was the Scots' contribution to the 30 Years War perceived?
1. What is a mercenary?
A mercenary is a professional soldier, part of an independent company or regiment serving under contract for pay in a foreign army. In current usage, the word has very negative connotations, signifying personal gain before all else. In the late Renaissance mercenaries were part of the armies of many nations. Occasionally honor outweighed both money and survival.
2. Why did countries use mercenaries?
During the 16th and 17th centuries many kings were not allowed to keep permanent, standing armies. The nobles and growing merchant classes feared it would give the ruler to much power to have an army ready at all times.
In most countries the land reserves or militia could be called up by the Estates (the clergy, nobles, or town leaders) at the request of the king whenever the country was in danger. The Estates, if they opposed the action, might refuse to call up the militia, or could summon only a fraction of the king's request. For example, every 5th or 6th man might be called upon to serve king and country.
Towns and country estates were required to finance these troops. But districts would often claim some excuse, such as too much/little rain, poor crops, plague, or fire, and therefor could not afford their full share. Thus, even if the reserves were called, they might lack proper money and supplies.
The reserves themselves were commoners. Up-rooted from their workshops and farms, they were poorly trained, and so slow to rally that they occasionally missed the battle all together, and then were quick to scatter and run home.
Mercenaries, therefore, provided a solution to the problems of the militia. The Estates would be more willing to pay for mercenary troops since they did not take local men from the crops and economy. Mercenaries were also a means to raise an army without the approval of the Estates, assuming the ruler could raise enough cash from other sources.
3. What types of mercenaries were there?
A. The Swiss.
The Swiss developed the use of the pike, making it possible for peasant infantry to beat their "betters," the mounted knights. Point d'argent point de Suisse," (No money, no Swiss) is an expression of their business-like approach, one common to all mercenaries. On occasion they were bribed to change sides. They also, at times, fought to the last man. Unlike all other mercenaries, they never fought their own kind. They were the best mercenaries of the period, though monopolized since 1516 by France through a treaty of perpetual peace. The success of the Swiss mercenary can be attributed to 3 qualities:
Courage. They never ran or surrendered. They retreated in good order, or were annihilated. Hanging the first man to panic was common practice.
Training. The old veterans would oversee the new men in constant drill until perfection was attained, something unknown since the Roman Legion and its centurions.
Terror Tactics. The Swiss took no prisoners. They rejected the benefits of ransom in favor of panic as a weapon.
B. The Landsknechts.
The Landsknechts were soldiers of the Holy Roman Empire. They served in all countries of Europe when not needed by their emperor. They were known to fight each other, but also surrendered automatically to a superior force. Raised in regiments (unusual for early in our era, most units were raised as companies) by a colonel, who sent out captains to towns and villages of the northern German states. The "beat of the drum" raised recruits, often of good families. They swore an oath to the emperor including not to demand extra pay before a battle, and to loot only with the colonel's permission! Before battle, there was a prayer or hymn, a handful of dust over the shoulder for luck, and a brief speech from the colonel: "We want as God wills, to do our duty today and get rich". Then off to fife and drum at a five beat chanting, "Hut dich, Baur Ich Kamm!: (Look out here, I come).
C. The Scots.
Hired by the Dutch, the Swedes, sought as the troops of choice by the Poles, incorporated as part of the elite guard of the French army, these well-traveled people are who we represent!
D. English & Irish.
Often intermixed in Scots formations, the Poles called all Britons "Scots." The Germans called the Scots "Irish," since they spoke a common language. Some "Scots" units were recruited in Ireland. The English and Irish were indifferent to being commanded by a Scotsman. Scots would not be commanded by anyone but a fellow countryman, ideally one of their own clansmen.
4. How were Scots recruited?
A. Impressment.
Idlers were grabbed and forced to serve. "The order was given to seize all vagabonds of the high road, all incorrigible bankrupts and all vagrants of whatever description." This was in 1577-78.
B. Enlistment as individuals.
The holder of a recruitment patent would set up his tents in a convenient area. Officers accompanied by musicians would travel the towns, villages and places of gathering, painting a rosy picture of money and adventure, and offer an enlistment bounty. Patents were nailed up in high traffic areas, and the drum beaten to invite old soldiers and potential recruits. "He who is down on his luck can still get a dollar from MacKay," is an old Gaelic proverb immortalizing Colonel Donald MacKay, first Lord Reay, as one of the great Scottish recruiting agents.
A soldier's career might begin with travelling expenses received from the recruiter. Once his name was entered in the books, he had to report without delay to the mustering center. On the continent, a mustering center would be kept open for new arrivals for six days, implying a possible "catchment" area of a recruiting campaign of 3-5 days distance, or 100 to 150 kilometers. Weapons and equipment would be issued on the seventh and eighth days. On the ninth day soldiers would be inspected man-by-man by the commander or his representative. Finally, in a solemn ceremony, the commanding officer read the "document of articles", handed the standards over to the ensigns, the provost warned the recruits of the bans on gambling, brawls and cursing, and finally the muster oath was administered to the soldiers.
C. A Chief volunteering his clan.
In 1627, the chief of the McNaughtons raised 100 bowmen for service abroad. It would seem troops initially brought their own weapons and retained their own clothing and style of dress. In our period campfollowers commonly outnumbered the soldiers of an army. Families may have left the Highlands with their fighting men. The reputation of Scots was as loving husbands, who were respectful of their wives. This however did not preclude the soldiers' tendency for temporary arrangements.
5. Were Scots mercenaries mostly Highlanders or Lowlanders?
There was a bias in Scotland against the isolated, self-concerned Highlander by the more Continental-involved Lowlander. This bias did not prevent Highlanders from serving throughout our period:
A. "By 1628, MacKay had so emptied Scotland of men that future sources of supplies were restricted to the Highlands and Islands."
B. The Battle of Rymenam. The troop of Colonel William Stewart (fighting for the Dutch) were noted to have stripped to their shirts, some tying them about their middles.
C. Polish references. Late 16th century: "Modest, or improper dress."
D. A letter 1627, concerning McNaughton's 100 bowmen: "Martlet (multicolored) plaids and bagpipes."
E. Period drawings. Starting in 1631, a number of illustrations depict Highland dress on mercenary troops.
Until 1627, Highland dress is only strongly suggested. The direct reference of that year and the illustrations in the 1630s are conclusive that Highlanders were being used.
6. What would a camp or garrison be like?
There would be a strict separation of men from officers, and not only for reasons of discipline. The commanding officer negotiated contracts with employers. Until the unit was hired, there was everything to gain by not having your troops available for a head count or inspection. Employers expected this, and near the end of our period, the muster-rolls in Swedish service entered passevolants (dead pays) for men who did not exist. This was a way of financing replacements, taking care of dependent campfollowers, or lining the officers' pockets.
In a garrison, or in town, mercenaries would find what accommodations were offered for rent, or if in an enemy town, would take what they wanted. Families of companionable nature may have shared quarters and expenses, as would soldiers with a less stable home life. Our sense of privacy is a relatively modern concept. Sergeants and corporals would have been responsible for knowing where their men were quartered so as to collect them if the music of assembly failed to do so. There was a reluctance to enter towns due to their ability to beguile away troops and hide deserters.
In the field, the same separation applied, but life could range from tentage to occupation of farm buildings, cottages, or manor houses. The best situations were naturally reserved for officers and NCOs. Among the ranks, brute force may have settled the issue in a newly formed unit, but an unofficial, yet established, pecking order would exist in older units.
Guidelines were being established for the layout of a tent city of an army by the earliest of our period. Company streets, Officers' row, and a central area for sutlers (venders of all imaginable goods) was the norm. All were neatly laid out with thought given to assembling all forces in an orderly fashion. A guard would be posted to prevent desertion, to maintain internal order, and to defend against outside attack.
In garrison, or in the field, the daily routine would have been much the same, broken only by moving, battle, or some special occasion (pay day, review of troops, important funeral, etc.). The necessities of soldiering would see several formations a day for a head count. Pikemen would practice their maneuvers in conjunction with the shot. These were survival skills and would have been taken very seriously by those in command, and as the command held the power of life and death over the common soldier, he would have taken it seriously as well. Soldiers would have first-hand knowledge of flogging, branding, cropping of limbs, hanging, or drawing and quartering.
Soldiers were provided with money to purchase the necessities of life. Money in the pocket was something beyond the experience, but not the dreams, of less well-off Highlanders. At home, the clan took care of them; as mercenaries, they became the equals of the best-off in the Highlands. They had money to spend to support themselves and their campfollowers. To this was added, as luck allowed, loot and the spoils of war. Access to merchants and sutlers would provide them with food and the campfollowers would prepare it. Having lived on oats in the Highlands, it would be natural for their diet not to have changed greatly. Death by eating to many rich foods was not uncommon to those new to the continent. The Scots reputation for thrift has basis in fact, and many may have pooled their money to eat together.
Activities of maintenance would consume some of the day: mending, occasional washing, and other tasks. Entertainment in the field would be left to their own devices, such as music, dancing, storytelling, practical jokes, drinking (when available), fighting, and gambling.
Doctors, of a fashion, served in all armies, and medical treatment would have been available. This treatment was seldom sought, unless unavoidable. A fear of the "butcher" was based on his lack of success.
The Scots served both Protestant and Catholic armies during our period. As it was a volatile issue, not making trouble about it was a survival tool. It was common for mercenaries to have prayed before battle, and attendance to church calls was mandatory.
7. What did armies of the time eat?
(See also the Scottish Culture section for the diet of Scotland.) During the 30 Years War an army was a threat to civilians in both friendly and enemy territories. Irregular pay and provisions meant that soldiers often resorted to self-help to fill their bellies. Looting, plunder, or extortion left common folk happy merely to survive the passage of an army through the neighborhood.
A provisions store was part of every military encampment. Located safe from enemy fire, it was guarded by trustworthy sentries. Regulations of the time often said to feed these sentries before they went on duty to reduce their temptations.
An example of the monthly diet called for by regulations in the 30 Years War: Meat 16 days/month, fish 6 days/month, butter and cheese 8 days/month. Of the meat days, 8 were to be allotted to beef, 4 to mutton, 4 to bacon or pork. As side dishes soldiers had peas, barley, semolina, and beans. Also common were dried apples, plums, cherries and pears. Garlic was a very important condiment. A regiment of 3,864 could consume 10,592 loaves of bread daily
All of this varied with their availability in the district and the fortunes of war. Fish was sometimes the staple during lean times, being mainly dried or smoked cod.
Daily troop rations were also regulated. Officers, of course, received more, according to their rank. The common soldier might be issued per day: 14 lbs. of bread, 4 lbs. meat, 3 lbs. cheese, 1 lb. butter and 1 qt. of beer. This sounds like a huge amount of food, but this was the "ideal" amount and troopers had to use this to feed their women and children as well.
As the war dragged on, supplying troops became increasingly difficult. During the unending campaigns of the 30 Years War, crops were often destroyed before they could be harvested. Even if crops lasted to harvest time, there may not have been enough hands available to harvest and process the crops. An account of the Gallas Cavalry's retreat tells how they passed through such desolated areas that they were forced to eat horse meat (probably their own injured or sickly animals) when it was available. In the end, they were so weakened that many of the troops never recovered even after reaching towns having food.
Bread was a large part of people's diet. During the 1500's the French general Coligny is reported to have said whenever it was a question of raising an army: "Let us start to build this monster with the stomach." For his troops there was a baker for each squadron, and as soon as the unit arrived in their billets, the baker immediately started work.
Theoreticians estimated that during the wars of Louis XIV (1643-1715) a large army could not move more than five days march from a supply depot. The field bakery was to be placed two days march from the army and three days from the depot. The bread baked in the field bakeries was usable only for nine days. Assuming the wagons moved back and forth and required one day for rest and loading, troops might receive "fresh" bread every fifth day. (In 1758, as a result of conditions during a rainy period "Within sight of the depots and bakeries the army began to suffer deprivation. For a distance of less than 5 kilometers the bread wagons needed days and nights and even had to throw off half their load en route.")
8. How did the troops supply themselves when food was scarce?
It was common for the rearguard and baggage train to raid the local areas along the march. This was done by individuals or in small groups by soldiers, whores, or youths following the army. Although the practice was often condemned, some senior officers ignored it since it meant the cumbersome baggage train and many soldiers could solve their own supply problems. The Mauskopf (literally "mouse-heads", meaning thief-heads) were the most expert in "requisitioning" and stealing supplies from villages and farms. They often went farther afield and supplied officers with plunder, fresh food, and delicacies that were in short supply in the vicinity of the troops. Even "good" soldiers likely took part in such activities, but military regulations often conflicted with economic need, and the worse the supply position of the formation, the worse would be the spirit of the troops.
9. How were supplies transported?
Provisions and military supplies followed the troops in a supply train. In the early 1600's wagons and drivers were not yet a part of the army, but were contracted for a specific period or campaign. The organization and grouping of the supply train was the responsibility of the Wagonmaster. In a train of possibly over 200 wagons, orders would be relayed from wagon to wagon by a Trainmaster.
When the wagoneers' contract ended they were free to return home or to sign on again. If the army was doing well, there was a chance to be rehired to carry away booty from captured towns. If the war went poorly, it was probably difficult to find wagoneers since they would fear not getting paid. There would also be the chance that the army would merely take the wagons as needed.
Wagons themselves came in numerous designs. Experience proved that the most suitable wagons or carts were those made locally, since they were designed for the local terrain.
At the end of the wagon train would be the campfollowers. The wives, mistresses, or tarts who followed the army and took care of the washing, cooking and other domestic work between battles. The women carried their bundles, kegs and panniers in any way they could. Wives and mistresses of officers would naturally be better off and follow on horseback or in carriages. The richest would have a retinue of maids to accompany them. The whole band of wives and mistresses was in the charge of a veteran officer called the Wenchmaster.
10. Why was Stewart's Regiment in Holland?
In 1568 the Low Countries (today’s Holland and Belgium) revolted against Spanish control because King Phillip of Spain had inherited the Low Countries and had brought back the Inquisition to restore the Catholic faith. Elizabeth I, for economic and balance of power considerations, sided with the Low Countries. The first English-raised regiment arrived in 1572. By 1600, 20 Scots companies were in Dutch service.
Experienced mercenaries considered the Dutch to be Europe's best employers. The offered fairly generous pay, year-round employment, and even some pension arrangements for the disabled. Stewart himself seems to have been personally attracted by the money.
11. How long was the regiment in Dutch Service?
Two separate periods of service have been found:
A. 1575-1577. A request for arms and armor places the regiment in the Lowlands in 1575. They were there until 1577, "when in default of wages and hunger, whereby many perished." The regiment may have had back pay withheld as a result of a halt in the action. In 1575 Philip of Spain went bankrupt from fighting both the Ottoman Turks and the Dutch. Unpaid, Spanish troops began to mutiny and pillage, forcing the Spanish governor to dismiss his troops and make a temporary peace in February, 1577. The regiment accepted a contract in 1577 from the mainly German-speaking city of Danzig, part of the Polish Republic. This Baltic city, built on the mouth of the Vistula, sought to break with Poland and join the predominantly German Holy Roman Empire.
B. 1578 - Unknown. The Dutch fought the Spanish until the "12 Years Truce" of 1609 and resumed hostilities during the 30 Years War. The first permanent regiments were starting to evolve at this time. Stewart's Regiment degenerated into separate companies, some serving with the Poles by 1581. By the 1590's there are records of Stewart attempting to sue the Dutch for back wages. Yet some Scots continued to serve with the Dutch through out our period.
12. What was service like with the Dutch?
Companies in Dutch service were standardized at 150 to 200 men at full strength, which was seldom the case thanks to casualties and desertion, not to mention the most common depletion of man power - disease. Regiments were composed of 3 to 15 companies. Four battle regiments formed 1 - 3 very large battalions called hopen. Hopen were formed of a rectangle of pikemen deeper than wide, with shot flanking as well as forming a thin screen in front called a "forlorn hope." As of 1579, a company included:
1 Captain 2 Sergeants 50 Pikemen
1 Ensign 6 Corporals 12 Musketeers
1 Clerk 2 Drummers 75 Arquebusiers
Not listed, but surely present, would be the campfollowers. The Dutch championed the Protestant cause. Religious disputes within the ranks of the Dutch army were certainly possible, given that the common soldier fought for pay, not ideology. However, by the time of the Revolt of the Netherlands, both the Scots and the Dutch had definite Calvinist leanings.
Year-round employment would mean garrison duty for the winter in or near a town, Dorpe (village), or fortification. Perhaps the accommodations were less than ideal as Stewart's Regiment would have be contacted well after mid-summer of 1577 and Stewart may not have seen the regiment's prospects in Dutch service as improving. This, despite the Lowlands' good reputation as an employer of mercenaries.
13. What was the Spanish enemy like?
Spain was the dominant military power of the 16th century in Europe, because her troops were the only regulars west of the Ottoman Empire. Spain's constant warring throughout our period created a standing army of professional soldiers. By 1643, their defeat at Rocroi at the hands of the French finally dealt Spanish military power a blow from which it never recovered.
14. What types of soldiers were in the Spanish army?
A. The Hermanadad (Brotherhood). A provincial militia. By the earliest of our period it was composed of 1/3 crossbowmen and 2/3 arquebusiers. Cavalry complements were armed with the lance.
B. Gendarmarie. This was the infantry of the Royal standing army. From 1575 to 1580 roughly 1/2 half shot and 1/2 pike, with the pike element declining to as little as 1/5 by 1650. For the shot, use of the musket (as opposed to the arquebus) rose to a peak of over 50% by the 1590's and declined by 1660 to between 33% and 10%.
C. Mercenaries in Spanish service. Spain hired Walloons, Italians, Burgundians, Germans and Irish.
The Spanish also use three types of cavalry:
1. The Old Guard of Castile. The "Old Guard” was distinguished by their "alwhyte" (uncovered, polished steel) armor. They decorated their helms with red plumes, and were armed with lances.
2. Herreruelos. Herreruelos were armored cavalry, armed with pistols and sword. They used two primary tactics: Trotting in formation to within pistol range, they would fire their weapons, then execute a counter-march while reloading, until this evolution put them back on the firing line. Or they would Charge with Sword. This type of shock tactic was only used against an already disorganized enemy.
3. Herguleturs. These were mounted arquebusiers. They were less armored than the Herreruelos and were later replaced by unarmored dragoons in the 1640's.
15. How was the Spanish infantry organized?
The Tercio. 15 to 20 Spanish companies (15 being the official number after 1632) were organized in a tercio which was both an administrative and tactical unit of 1500 to 3000 men. Deployed for battle, it is a massive central block of pikemen surrounded by shot, and drilled to execute a variety of maneuvers. Tercios were named with territorial titles: Lombardy, Naples, Portugal, Leige, for example. Some developed nicknames such as "The Invincible" and "The Immortals". The Tercios, with their enduring traditions and esprit de corps, were the forerunners of all later regiments.
A tercio was under the command of a Maeste de Campo, assisted by a Sargente Mayor and a small staff including a doctor, chaplain, a drum major (for signals) and an honor guard of eight halberdiers. Each of its companies had four officers and non-commissioned officers, a standard bearer, a chaplain plus a drummer and a fifer. Amongst those counted as pikemen would have been both sword and buckler men and halberdiers as skirmishers. Together, these men never counted for more than 10% of a tercio's total strength.
16. What was Stewart's Regiment's strength at Danzig?
Six companies numbering about 700 men:
Captain Clan Connection Strength
John Trotter Unknown 104
John Thompson MacThomas, Mactavish, 140
or Campbell
John Barone Unknown 96
Wm. Moncrieff* Moncrieff 88
Alex Ross Ross ?
John Dallachy Unknown 75
Wm. Benton Unknown 138
Also mentioned: Captain Gourlay and Colonel Wm. Stewart.
*A decline in the Moncreiff clan culminates in a William Moncreiffe, of that ilk, 11th Laird, selling the Highland Moncreiffe lands by the Loch Tay in 1598 to the chieftain of Glenorchy (a Campbell). In 1573 Moncreiff's regiment was in Swedish service. In that year, due to inadequate pay, the regiment planned to assassinate King John and reinstate "Mad" King Eric the XIV, who was to make good their pay in arrears. The plan was to give an exhibition of the sword dance at the royal palace. At a certain point in the dance, seemingly as part of it, the dancers were to take up their swords and strike. The plot was betrayed by a Colquhoun clansman whom, they state, was beheaded too late.
17. What is known of Stewart's regiment travelling to Danzig?
Their route can only be conjectured. It is known that they stopped at Lubeck en route to purchase arquebuses. Being a German city of the Holy Roman Empire, this assistance may not have been limited to the selling of weapons. This represents one form of support by the Empire to the city of Danzig.
18. What was service like in Danzig?
First things first. Payment was 5 thalers a month for most men, unlike the graded pay scale based on experience and equipment for German troops.
The city itself was under siege by the Polish army. Pikes were deemed of little use. A period description from an eyewitness to the funeral of Captain Gourlay wrote, "all the Scots with their arquebuses and drums..." Gourlay died in a skirmish near the vital Lantern Fortress, guarding the mouth of the Vistula River. He was first wounded under the arm. Then, in trying to jump out of a boat, he lost his footing and fell in the river. He sank and drowned due to his wound and the weight of his armor.
English state papers speak highly of Stewart's regiment in Danzig. They were the "chief stay in all their troubles. They have done such noble service that they have got great fame for their country in these parts." In spring, 1578, peace was arranged between Danzig and Poland, without the walls of the city ever being breached.
Part of Stewart's regiment returned to Poland in 1581 with Captain John Thomson to fight in the service of King Bathory of Poland. Danzig had brought the Scottish troops fame. They were noted as excellent shots, valued above other soldiers. "2000 Scots were sought for the Poles 1581 campaign against Ivan the Terrible's immense fortress of Pskov. Only 248 Scottish men were available. On their arrival they greatly lifted the morale of the Polish camp”. The lack of Scots had been addressed by contracting "inferior German troops”. "They (the Scots) have something above the Germans in willingness to fight and bravery... if only we had a few thousand of them we'd be laughing about taking on the walls of Pskov."
19. What was service like with the Polish army?
Seemingly better than being in Scotland. There were large numbers of Scots living in Poland, escaping religious prejudice at home. A British agent in Poland said of them "for the most part, Highlanders, men of no credit, a company of peddling knaves." Scots served Poland throughout our period and recorded fond memories of their service there. "Better treated among foreigners than among friends and relatives." "Having served in a country and amongst such people where strangers had great respect and were in great reputation, and even more trust as them natives themselves... Where no scruples was shown, or difference was shown between natives and strangers." Such words speak highly of Polish service. The Polish connection to Scotland goes well beyond our period of concern. Bonnie Prince Charlie's mother was the granddaughter of King Sobieski of Poland. Supposed descendents John and Charles Edward Sobieski-Stewart authored Vestiarum Scoticum in 1842, inventing many of the modern tartans we know today.
20. Why did Scots fight for Gustavus Adolphus in the 30 Years War?
Besides the obvious lure of money and booty was the desire to assist their fellow Protestants on the continent. Most officers may have enlisted in order to gain experience under the Swedish king who had gained a reputation as a brilliant general and strategist.
In addition, some felt it was a way to help King Frederick V, the new King of Bohemia who had married Elizabeth Stewart, daughter of their own James VI. Perhaps the words of Robert Monro, a Scottish officer with MacKay's Regiment best explain the sentiment, "To doe service to the Jewell of Europe, the Daughter of our King, the Queen of Bohemia, and her Princely Issue."
One reason many foreigners may have flocked to Gustavus' ranks was the hope of rapid promotion. An example is a Christof von Houwald who joined as a common musketeer in 1616-18 and rose steadily in rank: lieutenant 1625, captain 1627, major 1629, lieutenant-colonel 1630, and finally made a Swedish noble in 1630. Although von Houwald's promotion from the common ranks was rare, it was much more common in the Swedish army than any others. Beyond the lure of rapid advancement, most of the officers may have enlisted in order to gain experience. But before 1631, Gustavus rarely gave regiments to mere adventurers unless they came with impeccable references from other armies.
21. Were all of Sweden's soldiers mercenaries?
No, the core of Gustavus' army was made up of conscripted troops. According to regulations as of 1620, all men over 15 were liable for this "draft." When "Utskrivning," or conscription was ordered, the men of a district were gathered and divided into groups of ten and army commissioners selected the most likely soldier from each ten. The remaining nine were expected to contribute the "file money" that would pay for the new soldiers' sword and clothing. Foreigners marveled at the success of the system - how mere farmers' sons were turned into disciplined soldiers.
22. If the Swedish conscription was so successful, why use mercenaries?
Between 1626 and 1630 Sweden conscripted approximately 2% of the male population each year. With much of Europe still living at near subsistence level farming, there was a limit to the burden that could be placed on the people. As early as the 1620's there had been occasional rioting in response to the conscriptions. Population studies show that northern areas were hurt the most. In the parish of Bygdea the male population between age 15 and 60 dropped from 468 in 1621 to a mere 288 in 1639.
23. How was Gustavus' Army organized?
By 1630 the army had evolved to close to 20 "Provincial regiments." Ideally each regiment would be organized in this fashion:
Each "Rot" would contain 6 men: 1 Corporal, or Rotmaster, 4 Common soldiers, and 1 Under-rotmaster (file closer)
In addition to the common soldiers of the unit a regiment would include the following military and administrative offices.
Regimental Staff:
Colonel*
Lt. Colonel*
Major*
2-4 Chaplains
Schultz
4 Surgeons
4 Provosts
Regimental Clerk
Court Marshal Clerk
Court Marshal sergeant
2 Stock-knights (beadles)
Hangman
Company Staff:
Captain**
Lieutenant
Ensign
2 Sergeants
Fuhrer of Colors
Fuhrer
Rustmeister (Capt. of arms)
Muster Clerk
3 Drummers
4 Muster-boys
** A company could also be lead by a Col., Lt. Col., or Major.
*Company commanders
24. Did any Scots fight on the Catholic side of the war?
Yes, we know of at least two Scottish officers who were prominent in the army of the Holy Roman Empire:
John Gordan. Governor of the Fortress of Eger, in Bohemia, he was richly rewarded by the Imperial Court in Vienna for his services.
Walter Leslie. Second son of the 10th Baron of Balquhain, in Aberdeen. He was involved in the assassination of General Wallenstein who had been considering deserting the Imperial cause. In fact, Wallenstein's body was transported back to the citadel at Eger in the then Sergeant- major Leslie's carriage. Although the murder was repudiated as a rash and premature act, Leslie later requested and was granted both a command of his own and the title of count. His military career ended in 1634 with the Battle of Nordlingen. He was later made a privy counselor to the Emperor and proved a skillful diplomat.
25. How many Scots served with Sweden and when?
Between 20 and 30 thousand; also perhaps 10,000 English and a few thousand Irish. This dates from at least 1615 when a Patrick Ruthven, Lord Etterick, Earl of Forth and Brentford raised 1000 Scots for Swedish service. The end of our period seems to be about 1635, although in 1634 the Scots were nearly annihilated in the Protestant defeat at the Battle of Nordlingen. Also, at that time the clouds of civil war had begun to gather at home and many of the survivors began to return to Scotland.
26. What were soldiers paid by Sweden?
They were paid on a monthly basis the following amounts in Swedish Riksthalers. Approximately 4.5 Riksthalers equaled 1 Pound Sterling.
Colonel 130
Captain 100
Lieut.-Col 50
Ensign 50
Regimental Clerk 50
Regimental Judge 50
Lieutenants 50
Quartermaster 30
Chaplains 30
Court-martial clerk 30
Court-martial beadle 30
Surgeon 20
Provost 20
Sergeants 16
Quartermaster sgt. 16
Executioner 12
Armorer 12
Muster Clerk 12
Corporals 11
Section heads 9
Drummers 8
Under-sgts. 7
Orderlies 6
Pike & Shot 6
Scouts 5
Reserve 5
In England, about this time, a general carpenter could expect to earn (at a rate of 7 pence/day) about 8 Shillings, 8 pence a month working a 70 hour week during the summer. Thus, at 6 Riksthalers a month, a common pikeman, or musketeer could earn almost twice as much as a carpenter. Of course this assumes the war is going well and the soldiers are actually getting paid.
In addition, Gustavus agreed to "make a settlement twice a year, and to pay at that time whatever balance may be found due..." Damage to equipment due to carelessness was deducted from the pay. Officers and soldiers captured by the enemy would be ransomed at the king's expense and disabled men would be provided a "temporary home in our dominions," or a month's pay if they wished to go directly home.
27. What were Swedish tactics like?
For battle, the Swedish infantry was set up in squadrons of pike 36 men across and 6 ranks deep. They were accompanied by a block of musketeers 32 men across and also 6 ranks deep, as well as an additional 94 musketeers in reserve, for a total of about 504 marching men (excluding officers). Three of these squadrons would make up a Swedish Brigade on the battlefield. It must be kept in mind that these squadrons and brigades were temporary groupings used in battle. A regiment was an administrative grouping and might fight in different brigades from battle to battle depending on their strength and casualties.
The "Scots Brigade" battle unit as of September 1631:
Regiment Companies Pikemen Musketeers Officers
James Lumsdaine 8180 300 128
MacKay/Monro 8144 252 128
James Ramsey 8108 327 128
John Hamilton 8172 336 128
(The period recruiting "goal" for Colonel Gaffney's Regiment might be to equal the size of one of these Regiments, around 500 men and 128 officers.)
Musketeers, 6 ranks deep, were trained to fire in counter-march, two ranks at a time. Or, they could "double the files” forming three lines: kneeling, crouching and standing, to fire a massed volley. These were supported by 12 light regimental guns for each brigade. The resulting fire-shock would be followed by a pike charge, rather than passively defending the shot as they reloaded.
Although infantry was the mainstay of Gustavus' early wars, he had developed effective cavalry by the 30 Years War. Among his best horsemen were Finns who provided up to half of Gustavus' horse. They were known as Hakkapelis from their war cry, "chop 'em up!" The standard cavalry became "light cavalry" equipped with helmet, corselet, a pair of pistols and a sword. They were taught to charge with sword, the first rank firing at point-blank range. The cavalry was placed at the wings of the army in two lines of squadrons.
The Swedes integrated artillery into their army more than their contemporaries. Gun crews were normally semi-civilian artisans. Gustavus made them actual soldiers and was the first to reorganize them into companies (1623). The guns were standardized also: 6, 12 and 24 pounders, and lightened to increase mobility.
28. What was the Imperial Army like during the 30 Years War?
Primarily mercenaries. Troop types and organization were fairly standardized. Infantry would be pike and shot at a ration of 2:3, later tending towards 1:2. Regiment size varied from about 5 to 8 companies of 300 men each. For their tactics they started out following the Spanish model, using tercio formations. They later started to copy Swedish tactics using shallower, but wider formations.
Most cavalry were "Cuirassiers" with 3/4 armor, sword and two pistols. Irregular light cavalry carried light lances and long, straight thrusting swords, but the greatest number of irregulars, Croats, carried a short arquebus, two pistols and a saber.The empire maintained a permanent body of artillery technicians. They later seemed to have adopted Swedish patterns, trying to provide units with two 6-pounder cannons each.
29. How was the Scottish contribution to the 30 Years War received?
"No troops could be better fitted, morally, as well as physically, for desperate undertakings, than these Scots. They have proved hardy, frugal and sober soldiers."
In spite of being shipwrecked en route, one Scottish regiment saved their muskets, made a deal for ammunition with a local Swedish sympathizer and proceeded to capture and hold the island of Rugen for 9 weeks until relieved.
Once, in the attack on the garrison of Oppenheim, Gustavus commenced the assault when "they met fugitives leaping the walls, throwing away their arms and crying for quarter... Colonel Ramsey in his impulsive eagerness had, on secret paths, penetrated the castle with only 200 hundred Scots... and when the latter (the king) saw the little band drawn up at the gate to salute him, he addresses them with, 'My brave Scots, why have you been too quick for me?'"
Sources:
Brezezinski, Richard. The Army of Gustavus Adolphus. London: Osprey, 1991.
Brezezinski, Richard. "British Mercenaries in the Baltic, 1560-1683 (pt. 1)", Military Illustrated. December 1986/January 1987, pp. 17-23.
Brezezinski, Richard. "British Mercenaries in the Baltic, 1560-1683 (pt. 2)", Military Illustrated". April/May 1987, pp. 29-35.
Delbruck, Hans. The Dawn of Modern Warfare, History of the Art of War, Vol. IV.
Gush, George. Renaissance Armies 1480-1650. Cambridge: Patrick Stevens, 1975.
Langer, Herbert. The Thirty Years War. Dorset Press, 1990.